1932
0
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Annual Review of Political Science
  4. Volume 26, 2023
  5. Article

Annual Review of Political Science

Volume 26, 2023

The Politics of Racist Dehumanization in the United States

Abstract

The concept of racist dehumanization is essential for political scientists who seek to understand the nature, scope, and consequences of white racial prejudice in the United States today. Racist dehumanization consists of a variety of processes that construct, refashion, and maintain race by coding some people as white and therefore fully human and others as other than white and therefore less than fully human. In this review, we focus on the racist dehumanization of Indigenous people and Black people, arguing that processes of dehumanization have long been implicated in both the practice of race-making and concurrent efforts to exploit and dominate racialized groups. We posit that contemporary white racial prejudice can be understood, in part, as the residue of these processes, and we conclude by describing how accounting for racist dehumanization can transform the study of white racial prejudice.

Keyword(s): Black, dehumanization, Indigenous, prejudice, race, racial attitudes, racism, white
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-polisci-062321-041446
2023-06-15
2024-04-27
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/polisci/26/1/annurev-polisci-062321-041446.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-polisci-062321-041446&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Adams CF 1865. The Works of John Adams, Second President of the United States: with a Life of the Author, Notes, and Illustrations, by His Grandson Charles Francis Adams, Vol. 10 Boston: Little, Brown
  2. Adams DW. 1995. Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience1875–1928. Lawrence: Univ. Kansas Press
  3. Allen TW. 1997. The Invention of the White Race: The Origin of Racial Oppression in Anglo-America, Vol. 2 New York: Verso
  4. Armitage D. 2004. John Locke, Carolina, and the Two Treatises of Government. Political Theory 32:5602–27
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Arneil B. 1992. “All the World Was America”: John Locke and the American Indian PhD Diss., University College London: https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1317765/1/283910.pdf
  6. Banner S. 2009. How the Indians Lost Their Land: Law and Power on the Frontier Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
  7. Bar-Tal D 1989. Delegitimization: the extreme case of stereotyping. Stereotyping and Prejudice: Changing Conceptions D Bar-Tal, CF Graumann, AW Kruglanski, W Stroebe 169–88. New York: Springer
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Bear C. 2008. American Indian boarding schools haunt many. Morning Edition Natl. Public Radio, May 12. https://www.npr.org/2008/05/12/16516865/american-indian-boarding-schools-haunt-many
    [Google Scholar]
  9. Beauvais E. 2021. Measuring anti-indigenous attitudes: the Indigenous Resentment Scale. Race Soc. Probl. 13:306–19
     [Google Scholar]
  10. Beauvais E. 2022. The political consequences of Indigenous resentment. J. Race Ethn. Politics 7:137–64
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Berkhofer RF Jr. 1978. The White Man's Indians New York: Knopf
  12. Blumer H. 1958. Race prejudice as a sense of group position. Pacific Sociol. Rev. 1:13–7
     [Google Scholar]
  13. Bobo LD. 2017. Racism in Trump's America: reflections on culture, sociology, and the 2016 presidential election. Br. J. Sociol. 68:S1S85–S104
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Bobo LD, Hutchings VL. 1996. Perceptions of racial group competition: extending Blumer's theory of group position to a multiracial social context. Am. Sociol. Rev. 61:6951–72
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Bobo LD, Smith RA 1998. From Jim Crow racism to laissez-faire racism: the transformation of racial attitudes. Beyond Pluralism: The Conception of Groups and Group Identities in America WF Katkin, N Landsman, A Tyree 182–210. Champaign: Univ. Ill. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Bobo LD, Tuan M. 2006. Prejudice in Politics: Group Position, Public Opinion, and the Wisconsin Treaty Rights Dispute Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
  17. Boysen GA, Isaacs RA, Tretter L, Markowski S. 2020. Evidence for blatant dehumanization of mental illness and its relation to stigma. J. Soc. Psychol. 160:3346–56
     [Google Scholar]
  18. Bruneau EG, Jacoby N, Kteily NS, Saxe R. 2018a. Denying humanity: the distinct neural correlates of blatant dehumanization. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 147:71078–93
     [Google Scholar]
  19. Bruneau EG, Kteily N, Laustsen L. 2018b. The unique effects of blatant dehumanization on attitudes and behavior towards Muslim refugees during the European ‘refugee crisis’ across four countries. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 48:5645–62
     [Google Scholar]
  20. Bruyneel K. 2019. Wake work versus work of settler memory: modes of solidarity in #NoDALP, Black Lives Matter, and anti-Trumpism. See Estes & Dhillon 2019 311–27
  21. Carlson KM. 2019. Lobbying against the odds. Harvard J. Legis. 56:23–81
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Clifford S, Piston S. 2017. Explaining public support for counterproductive homelessness policy: the role of disgust. Political Behav 39:2503–25
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Davies EJ. 2022. The anti-Black axis: rethinking racial triangulation. Politics Groups Identities 10:3475–80
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Davis DB. 2015. The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Emancipation New York: Vintage Books
  25. Davis-Delano LR, Gone JP, Fryberg SA 2020. The psychosocial effects of Native American mascots: a comprehensive review of empirical research findings. Race Ethn. Educ. 23:5613–33
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Dawson MC, Cohen C. 2002. Problems in the study of the politics of race. Political Science: State of the Discipline I Katznelson, HV Milner 488–510. New York: W.W. Norton
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Deloria P. 1998. Playing Indian New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press
  28. Dilulio J Jr. 1995. The coming of the super-predators. Wash. Exam. Nov. 27. https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/weekly-standard/the-coming-of-the-super-predators
    [Google Scholar]
  29. DuBois WEB. 1910. Reconstruction and its benefits. Am. Hist. Rev. 15:4781–99
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Estes N, Dhillon J. 2019. Standing with Standing Rock: Voices from the #NoDAPL Movement Minneapolis: Univ. Minn. Press
  31. Evans LE. 2011. Expertise and scale of conflict: governments as advocates in American Indian politics. Am. Political Sci. Rev. 105:4663–82
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Evans LE. 2014. Tribal-state relations in the Anglosphere. Annu. Rev. Political Sci. 17:273–89
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Fields BJ. 1990. Slavery, race and ideology in the United States of America. New Left Rev 181:195–118
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Forman TA, Lewis AE. 2006. Racial apathy and Hurricane Katrina: the social anatomy of prejudice in the post-civil rights era. Du Bois Rev 3:1175–202
     [Google Scholar]
  35. Forscher PS, Kteily NS. 2020. A psychological profile of the alt-right. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 15:190–116
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Foxworth R, Boulding C. 2022. Discrimination and resentment: examining American attitudes about Native Americans. J. Race Ethn. Politics 7:19–36
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Fredrickson G. 2008. The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny New York: Harper and Row
  38. Frymer P. 2005. Racism revised: courts, labor law, and the institutional construction of racial animus. Am. Political Sci. Rev. 99:3373–87
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Frymer P. 2017. Building an American Empire: The Era of Territorial and Political Expansion Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
  40. Goff PA, Eberhardt JL, Williams MJ, Jackson MC 2008. Not yet human: implicit knowledge, historical dehumanization, and contemporary consequences. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 94:2292–306
     [Google Scholar]
  41. Goff PA, Jackson MC, Di Leone BAL, Culotta CM, DiTomasso NA. 2014. The essence of innocence: consequences of dehumanizing Black children. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 106:4526–45
     [Google Scholar]
  42. Gossett TF. 1963. Race: The History of an Idea in America New York: Oxford Univ. Press
  43. Gould SJ. 1996. The Mismeasure of Man New York: W.W. Norton
  44. Grande S 2008. Red pedagogy: the un-methodology. Handbook of Critical and Indigenous Methodologies NK Denzin, YS Lincoln, LT Smith 233–54. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
     [Google Scholar]
  45. Grande S, Avalos N, Mancini J, Newell C, Spears E 2019. Red praxis: lessons from Mashantucket to Standing Rock. See Estes & Dhillon 2019 245–60
  46. Grandin G. 2020. Slavery, and American racism, were born in genocide. Nation Jan. 20. https://www.thenation.com/article/society/slavery-american-genocide-racism/
    [Google Scholar]
  47. Greenwald AG, Banaji MR. 1995. Implicit social cognition: attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychol. Rev. 102:14–27
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Halbritter R, Pata J. 2016. The destructive dynamic of dehumanizing Native Americans. The Hill Blog Sept. 20. https://thehill.com/blogs/pundits-blog/civil-rights/296846-the-destructive-dynamic-of-dehumanizing-native-americans/
    [Google Scholar]
  49. Hämäläinen P. 2008. The Comanche Empire New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press
  50. Hannaford I. 1996. Race: The History of an Idea in the West Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Cent. Press
  51. Harris CI. 1993. Whiteness as property. Harvard Law Rev 106:81707–91
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Harvard Proj. Am. Indian Econ. Dev 2008. The State of the Native Nations: Conditions Under U.S. Policies of Self-Determination New York: Oxford Univ. Press
  53. Haslam N. 2006. Dehumanization: an integrative review. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 10:3252–64
     [Google Scholar]
  54. Haslam N, Loughnan S. 2014. Dehumanization and infrahumanization. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 65:399–423
     [Google Scholar]
  55. Hernández KL. 2017. City of Inmates: Conquest, Rebellion, and the Rise of Human Caging in Los Angeles Chapel Hill: Univ. North Carolina Press
  56. Herrera F, Bailenson J, Weisz E, Ogle E, Zak J 2018. Building long-term empathy: a large-scale comparison of traditional and virtual reality perspective-taking. PLOS ONE 13:10e0204494
     [Google Scholar]
  57. Hill G. 2009. 500 Years of Indigenous Resistance Oakland, CA: PM Press
  58. Hutchings VL. 2015. Race, punishment, and public opinion. Perspect. Politics 13:3757–61
     [Google Scholar]
  59. Jackson KC. 2019. Force and Freedom: Black Abolitionists and the Politics of Violence Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press
  60. Jahoda G. 1999. Images of Savages: Ancient Roots of Modern Prejudice in Western Culture New York: Routledge
  61. Jardina A, Piston S. 2019. Racial prejudice, racial identity, and attitudes in political decision making. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics1–22. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  62. Jardina A, Piston S. 2021. Hiding in plain sight: dehumanization as a foundation of white racial prejudice. Sociol. Compass 15:9e12913
     [Google Scholar]
  63. Jardina A, Piston S. 2022. The effects of dehumanizing attitudes about Black people on whites’ voting decisions. Br. J. Political Sci. 52:1076–98
     [Google Scholar]
  64. Jensen L. 2003. Patriots, Settlers, and the Origins of American Social Policy New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
  65. Johnson K. 1996. Aliens and the US immigration laws: the social and legal construction of nonpersons. Univ. Miami Inter-Am. Law Rev. 28:263
     [Google Scholar]
  66. Jordan W. 1968. White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro 1550–1812 Chapel Hill: Univ. North Carolina Press
  67. Junn J. 2007. From coolie to model minority: U.S. immigration policy and the construction of racial identity. Du Bois Rev 4:255–373
     [Google Scholar]
  68. Kalmoe NP, Fuller PB, Santia M, Saha P. 2022. Representation and aggression in digital racial conflict: analyzing public comments during live-streamed news of racial justice protests. Perspect. Politics 20:41226–45
     [Google Scholar]
  69. Kalmoe NP, Piston S. 2013. Is implicit racial prejudice against Blacks politically consequential? Evidence from the AMP. Public Opin. Q. 77:1305–22
     [Google Scholar]
  70. Kelley RDG. 2017. The rest of us: rethinking settler and native. Am. Q. 69:2267–76
     [Google Scholar]
  71. Kelman HG. 1973. Violence without moral restraint: reflections on the dehumanization of victims and victimizers. J. Soc. Issues 29:425–61
     [Google Scholar]
  72. Kendi IX. 2016. Stamped from the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in America New York: Nation Books
  73. Kessler-Mata KT. 2017. American Indians and the Trouble with Sovereignty: Structuring Self-Determination Through Federalism New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
  74. Kil SH. 2019. Covering the Border War: How the News Media Creates Crime, Race, Nation, and the USA-Mexico Divide Lanham, MD: Lexington Books
  75. Kim CJ. 1999. The racial triangulation of Asian Americans. Politics Soc 27:1105–38
     [Google Scholar]
  76. Kim CJ. 2015. Dangerous Crossings: Race, Species, and Nature in a Multicultural Age New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
  77. Kinder DR, Kam CD. 2010. Us Against Them: Ethnocentric Foundations of American Opinion Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
  78. Kinder DR, Sanders LM. 1996. Divided by Color: Racial Politics and Democratic Ideals Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
  79. Kinder DR, Sears DO. 1981. Prejudice and politics: symbolic racism versus racial threats to the good life. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 40:3414–31
     [Google Scholar]
  80. Krauthammer C. 1989. Children of cocaine. Wash. Post July 30, C7
    [Google Scholar]
  81. Krupnikov Y, Piston S. 2015. Racial prejudice, partisanship, and White turnout in elections with Black candidates. Political Behav 37:2397–418
     [Google Scholar]
  82. Krupnikov Y, Piston S. 2016. The political consequences of Latino prejudice against Blacks. Public Opinion Q 80:2480–509
     [Google Scholar]
  83. Kteily NS, Bruneau EG. 2017. Darker demons of our nature: the need to (re)focus attention on blatant forms of dehumanization. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 26:6487–94
     [Google Scholar]
  84. Kteily NS, Bruneau EG, Waytz A, Cotterill S. 2015. The ascent of man: theoretical and empirical evidence for blatant dehumanization. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 108:5901–31
     [Google Scholar]
  85. Kteily NS, Hodson G, Bruneau EG. 2016. They see us as less than human: metadehumanization predicts intergroup conflict via reciprocal dehumanization. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 110:3343–70
     [Google Scholar]
  86. LaDuke W, Cruz S 2013. The Militarization of Indian Country East Lansing: Mich. State Univ. Press
  87. Lajevardi N, Oskooii KAR. 2018. Old-fashioned racism, contemporary Islamophobia, and the isolation of Muslim Americans in the age of Trump. J. Race Ethn. Politics 3:1112–52
     [Google Scholar]
  88. Lawrence J. 2000. The Indian health service and the sterilization of Native American women. Am. Indian Q. 24:3400–19
     [Google Scholar]
  89. Leavitt PA, Covarrubias R, Perez YA, Fryberg SA. 2015.. ‘ Frozen in time’: the impact of Native American media representations on identity and self-understanding. J. Soc. Issues 71:139–53
     [Google Scholar]
  90. Lebron C. 2015. Thoughts on racial democratic education and moral virtue. Theory Res. Educ. 13:2155–64
     [Google Scholar]
  91. Lee KL, Phan NT 2022. Higher education as an institution of decolonization: role of quantitative methods pedagogy. Learning and Reconciliation Through Indigenous Education in Oceania PJC Pangelinan, T McVey 1–16. Hershey, PA: IGI Global
     [Google Scholar]
  92. Lerman A, Weaver VM. 2014. Race and crime in American politics: from law and order to Willie Horton and beyond. Oxford Handbook of Race, Ethnicity, Immigration, and Crime SM Bucerius, M Tonry 41–69 Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press, Online ed..
     [Google Scholar]
  93. Leyens JP, Paladino PM, Rodriguez-Torres R, Vaes J, Demoulin S et al. 2000. The emotional side of prejudice: the attribution of secondary emotions to ingroups and outgroups. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 4:2186–97
     [Google Scholar]
  94. Leyens JP, Rodriguez-Perez A, Rodriguez-Torres R, Gaunt R, Paladino MP et al. 2001. Psychological essentialism and the differential attribution of uniquely human emotions to ingroups and outgroups. Eur. J. Soc. Psychol. 31:4395–411
     [Google Scholar]
  95. Locke J. 1980 (1690). Second Treatise of Government: An Essay Concerning the True Original, Extent, and End of Civil Government Indianapolis, IN/Cambridge, UK: C.B. McPherson https://www.gutenberg.org/files/7370/7370-h/7370-h.htm
  96. Lomawaima KT. 1994. They Called It Prairie Light: The Story of Chilocco Indian School Lincoln: Univ. Nebr. Press
  97. Lowndes JE, Novkov J, Warren DT. 2008. Race and American Political Development New York: Routledge
  98. Maile DU. 2019. Threats of violence: refusing the thirty meter telescope and Dakota Access Pipeline. See Estes & Dhillon 2019 328–43
  99. Malcolm X. 1964. Black revolution is part of world-wide struggle Speech, Militant Labor Forum New York: Apr. 8. https://mronline.org/2022/07/11/speech-the-black-revolution-is-part-of-world-wide-struggle-malcolm-x-1964/
  100. Markowitz DM, Slovic P. 2020. Social, psychological, and demographic characteristics of dehumanization toward immigrants. PNAS 117:179260–69
     [Google Scholar]
  101. McBride PS. 2020. A lethal education: institutionalized negligence, epidemiology, and death in Native American boarding schools, 1879–1934 PhD Diss., Univ. Calif. Los Angeles https://www.proquest.com/docview/2440716535?fromopenview=true&pq-origsite=gscholar
  102. McConahay JB. 1983. Modern racism and modern discrimination: the effects of race, racial attitudes, and context on simulated hiring decisions. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 9:4551–58
     [Google Scholar]
  103. Mills C. 1997. The Racial Contract Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press
  104. Moe TM, Howell WG. 1999. The presidential power of unilateral action. J. Law Econ. Org. 15:1132–79
     [Google Scholar]
  105. Moore S 2020. The road to hell: how race paternalism shapes political behavior PhD Diss., Univ. Mich., Ann Arbor
  106. Morgan ES. 1975. American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia New York: W.W. Norton
  107. Muhammad KG. 2010. The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
  108. Murakawa N. 2014. The First Civil Right: How Liberals Built Prison America Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
  109. Nash GB. 1972. Red, white and black: the origins of racism in colonial America. The Origins of American Slavery and Racism DL Noel 131–52. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill
     [Google Scholar]
  110. Nash GB 2015. Red, White, and Black: The Peoples of Early North America Hoboken, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall
  111. Neuman GL. 1995. Aliens as outlaws: government services, Proposition 187, and the structure of equal protection doctrine. UCLA Law Rev 42:1425–52
     [Google Scholar]
  112. Newland B. 2022. Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative investigative report Rep. Assist. Sec. Indian Aff., US Dep. Interior Washington, DC: https://www.bia.gov/sites/default/files/dup/inline-files/bsi_investigative_report_may_2022_508.pdf
  113. Nichols R. 2020. Theft Is Property! Dispossession and Critical Theory Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press
  114. Olson J. 2004. The Abolition of White Democracy Minneapolis: Univ. Minn. Press
  115. Omni M, Winant H. 1986. Racial Formation in the United States New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul
  116. Ostler J. 2020. The shameful final grievance of the Declaration of Independence. Atlantic Feb. 8. https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/02/americas-twofold-original-sin/606163/
    [Google Scholar]
  117. Page J, Soss J. 2021. The predatory dimensions of criminal justice. Science 374:6565291–94
     [Google Scholar]
  118. Park TK-S. 2018. Insuring conquest: U.S. expansion and the Indian depradation claims system, 1796–1920. History Present 8:157–87
     [Google Scholar]
  119. Park TK-S. 2022. The history wars and property law: conquest and slavery as foundational to the field Work. Pap., Georgetown Univ. Law Cent. https://scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/facpub/2361
  120. Payne BK, Cheng CM, Govorun O, Stewart BD. 2005. An inkblot for attitudes: affect misattribution as implicit measurement. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 89:3277–93
     [Google Scholar]
  121. Pearce RH. 1953. The Savages of America Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press
  122. Phan NT, Lee KL. 2022. Toward a decolonial quantitative political science: Indigenous self-identification in the 2019 Native Hawaiian Survey. J. Race Ethn. Politics 7:190–118
     [Google Scholar]
  123. Piston S. 2010. How explicit racial prejudice hurt Obama in the 2008 election. Political Behav 32:431–451
     [Google Scholar]
  124. Piston S, Krupnikov Y, Milita K, Ryan JB. 2018. Clear as Black and White: the effects of ambiguous rhetoric depend on candidate race. J. Politics 80:2662–74
     [Google Scholar]
  125. Rana A 2010. The Two Faces of American Freedom Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
  126. Reséndez A. 2016. The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
  127. Rockwell S 2010. Indian Affairs and the Administrative State in the Nineteenth Century New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
  128. Rogers R, Kim JY. 2023. Rewiring linked fate: bringing back history, agency, and power. Perspect. Politics 211288–301
     [Google Scholar]
  129. Romo V. 2018. Native American tribes file lawsuit seeking to invalidate Keystone XL pipeline permit. MPR News Sept. 11. https://www.mprnews.org/story/2018/09/11/npr-native-american-tribes-file-lawsuit-seeking-to-invalidate-keystone-xl-pipeline-permit
    [Google Scholar]
  130. Sainz M, Martínez R, Sutton RM, Rodríguez-Bailón R, Moya M. 2020. Less human, more to blame: animalizing poor people increases blame and decreases support for wealth redistribution. Group Process. Intergroup Relat. 23:4546–59
     [Google Scholar]
  131. Saito NT. 2020. Settler Colonialism, Race, and the Law: Why Structural Racism Persists New York: NYU Press
  132. Sanchez GR, Foxworth R. 2022. Social justice and Native American political engagement: evidence from the 2020 presidential election. Public Opin. Q. 86:473–98
     [Google Scholar]
  133. Santa Ana O 2002. Brown Tide Rising: Metaphors of Latinos in Contemporary American Public Discourse Austin: Univ. Texas Press
  134. Schrader S. 2019. Badges Without Borders: How Global Counterinsurgency Transformed American Policing Oakland: Univ. Calif. Press
  135. Schroedel JR. 2020. Voting in Indian Country: The View from the Trenches Philadelphia: Univ. Pa. Press
  136. Sears DO. 1988. Symbolic racism. Eliminating Racism PA Katz, TA Dalmas 53–84. Boston, MA: Springer
     [Google Scholar]
  137. Sharma N. 2015. Strategic anti-essentialism: decolonizing decolonization. Sylvia Wynter: On Being Human as Praxis K McKittrick 164–82. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  138. Smedley A. 2007. Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview Boulder, CO: Westview. , 6th ed..
  139. Smedley A, Smedley BD. 2012. Race in North America: Evolution of a Worldview Boulder, CO: Westview
  140. Smith DL. 2011. Less than Human: Why We Demean, Enslave, and Exterminate Others New York: St. Martin's
  141. Smith DL. 2020. On Inhumanity: Dehumanization and How to Resist It Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  142. Staub E. 1989. The Roots of Evil: The Origins of Genocide and Other Group Violence New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
  143. Struch N, Schwartz SH. 1989. Intergroup aggression: its predictors and distinctness from in-group bias. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 56:3364–73
     [Google Scholar]
  144. Tesler M. 2013. The return of old-fashioned racism to white Americans’ partisan preferences in the early Obama era. J. Politics 75:1110–23
     [Google Scholar]
  145. Torpy SJ. 2000. Native American women and coerced sterilization: on the Trail of Tears in the 1970s. Am. Indian Culture Res. J. 24:21–22
     [Google Scholar]
  146. Utych SM. 2018. How dehumanization influences attitudes toward immigrants. Political Res. Q. 71:2440–52
     [Google Scholar]
  147. Utych SM. 2022. Race, dehumanization, and the NFL national anthem protests. J. Exp. Political Sci. 9:188–103
     [Google Scholar]
  148. Washington G. 1783. From George Washington to James Duane, 7 September 1783. Founders Online Natl. Arch. https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/99-01-02-11798
    [Google Scholar]
  149. Weaver VM. 2007. Frontlash: race and the development of punitive crime policy. Stud. Am. Political Dev. 21:Fall230–65
     [Google Scholar]
  150. Weaver VM, Prowse G, Piston S. 2019. Too much knowledge, too little power: an assessment of political knowledge in highly policed communities. J. Politics 81:31153–66
     [Google Scholar]
  151. Wilde VK, Martin KD, Goff PA. 2014. Dehumanization as a distinct form of prejudice. TPM Test. Psychometr. Methodol. Appl. Psychol. 21:3301–7
     [Google Scholar]
  152. Wilkins DE. 2013. Hollow Justice: A History of Indigenous Claims in the United States New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press
  153. Wolfe P. 2001. Land, labor, and difference: elementary structures of race. Am. Hist. Rev. 106:3866–905
     [Google Scholar]
  154. Woodly DR. 2021. Reckoning: Black Lives Matter and the Democratic Necessity of Social Movements New York: Oxford Univ. Press
  155. Yazzie MK. 2021. The armed friendlies of settler order. Violent Order D Correia, T Wall 127–40. Chicago: Haymarket Books
     [Google Scholar]
  156. Younging G. 2018. Elements of Indigenous Style: A Guide for Writing by and About Indigenous Peoples Edmonton, Can: Brush Education, Inc.
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-polisci-062321-041446
Loading
  • Article Type: Review Article

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error